Proto-Kra–Dai
PKD
Reconstruction ofKra–Dai languages
RegionPearl River region
Lower-order reconstructions

Proto-Kra–Dai (typically abbreviated as PKD) is the proposed reconstructed ancestor of the Kra–Dai languages.

Background

No full reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai has been published to date, although tentative reconstructions of many Proto-Kra–Dai roots have been attempted from time to time. Some preliminary Proto-Kra–Dai forms have been reconstructed by Benedict (1975)[1] and Wu (2002). Wu (2002) presents a reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai phonemes, which is based on data from the Tai, Kam-Sui, Hlai, and Kra branches.[2]

Liang & Zhang (1996) propose a reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai (Chinese: 原始侗台语) initials and finals, using data from all Kra–Dai branches except for Kra and Jiamao.[3]

Phonology

Proto-Kra–Dai has the finals *-l and *-c, which have been lost in most present-day Kra–Dai languages.[4] It also has the final stops *-p, *-t, *-k and final nasals *-m, *-n, *-ŋ.[4]

Ostapirat (2023) proposes the following consonant inventory for Proto-Kra–Dai, which is relatively simple compared to that of Proto-Tai and other lower-level reconstructions.[5]

Proto Kra-Dai consonants
Ostapirat (2023)
Labial Coronal Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Plosive Voiceless p t, ts c k q ʔ
Voiced b d ɟ ɡ
Fricative θ, s
Approximant w r, l j

Norquest (2020) proposes the preglottalized sonorants *ʔb, *ʔd, *ʔɖ, *ʔɟ for Proto-Kra–Dai, as part of a four-way phonation distinction in Kra-Dai sonorants consisting of preaspirated, voiceless, plain, and preglottalized sonorants. Norquest (2020) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) in Proto-Kra–Dai.[6]

Below is a table of Proto-Kra–Dai pre-syllables and their developments as proposed by Norquest (2020).[6]

p-Kra-Daip-Lakkjap-Kam-Suip-Ong-Bep-Taip-Hlai
*C-b*w̥*C-b*ʔb*C-b
*C-d*l̥*C-ʔɖ*r̥*C-d
*C-ɖ*j̊ (< *r̥)*C-ʔɖ*r*C-ɖ
*C-ɟ*l̥*ʔj*j̊*ʔj*hj
*Cəʔb*ʔb*ʔb*ʔb*ʔb
*Cəʔd*l̥*ʔd*r̥*ʔd
*Cəʔɖ*l̥*ʔɖ*r̥*ʔd
*Cəʔɟ*j̊*ʔɟ*j̊*ʔɟ*tɕ
*Cəm*m̥*ʔm*m̥*m̥*ʔm
*Cən*n̥*ʔn*n̥*n̥*ʔn
*Cəȵ*ȵ̥*ʔȵ*ȵ̥*ȵ̥*ʔȵ
*Cəŋ*ŋ̊*ʔŋ*ŋ̊*ŋ̊*ʔŋ
*Cəl*l̥*l̥*l̥*l̥*ʔl
*Cər*j̊ (< *r̥)*ʔr*Cr*hr
*Cəʀ(*j̊)*ʔʀ(*ʃ)(*ʀ̥)(*hr)
*Cəw*w̥*ʔw*w̥*ʔw(*ʔw)
*Cəj*j̊*ʔj*j̊*ʔj(*ʔj)

Ostapirat (2023) considers many Proto-Tai spirants and rhotics to have developed from the intervocalic lenition of Proto-Kra–Dai medial obstruents. Voicing in the Proto-Tai initial is determined by the voicing of the preceding consonant in the Proto-Kra–Dai form.[5]

p-Kra–Daip-Tai
*(C)-p-*v- [β]
*(C̥)-p-*f- [βʰ]
*(C)-t-*r-
*(C̥)-t-*rʰ-
*(C)-ts-*z- [ɮ]
*(C̥)-ts-*s-
*(C)-k-*ɣ-
*(C̥)-k-*x-
*-q-*-ɢ-

Some Proto-Kra–Dai sesquisyllabic consonant onsets reconstructed by Ostapirat (2023) are:[5]

Glossp-Kra–Daip-Taip-Kam–Sui
taro*b.r-*prɨak D*ʔraːk D
thin*b.r-*proːm A*ʔruːm A
forehead*p.r-*praːk D*praːk D
hair*p.r-*prom A*pram A
ribs*g.r-*kraːŋ C
"Kra"; slave*k.r-*kraː C

Liang & Zhang (1996)

Liang & Zhang (1996) propose the following reconstructions of Proto-Kra–Dai (Chinese: 原始侗台语) initials and finals, using data from all Kra–Dai branches except for Kra and Jiamao.[3]

Initial consonants
  • Plain stop initials
    • *p, *pw, *pl, *plw, *pr
    • *t, *tl, *tr
    • *k, *kw, *kl, *klw, *kr, *krw
    • *q, *ql, *qr, *ʔ
    • *b, *bw, *bl, *blw, *br
    • *d, *dl, *dr
    • *g, *gw, *gl, *glw, *gr, *grw, *ɢ
  • Voiced aspirated initials
    • *bɦ, *bwɦ, *brɦ
    • *dɦ, *ndlɦ
    • *gɦ, *gwɦ
    • *ɣɦ, *ɣwɦ, *ɢɦ, *ʁɦ, *sɢrɦ
  • Preglottalized initials
    • *ʔb, *ʔbw, *ʔbl, *ʔblw
    • *ʔd, *ʔdl, *ʔdr
    • *ʔm, *ʔml, *ʔmr
    • *ʔn, *ʔnl, *ʔnr, *ʔȵ, *ʔŋ, *ʔŋw
  • Voiceless nasal initials
    • *m̥, *m̥w, *m̥l, *m̥r, *m̥rw
    • *n̥, *n̥l, *ȵ̥, *ȵ̥w, *ŋ̥, *ŋ̥w
  • Plain nasal initials
    • *m, *mw, *ml, *mr
    • *n, *nr, *ȵ, *ŋ, *ŋw, *ŋr, *ɴl
  • Prenasalized initials
    • *mp, *mpl, *mpr
    • *nt, *ntl, *ntr
    • *ŋk, *ŋkw, *ŋkl
    • *mb, *mbl, *mbr
    • *nd, *ndl, *ndr
    • *ŋg, *ŋgl, *ŋgr
  • Glide and liquid initials
    • *ʔw, *ʔr, *ʔj
    • *w̥, *l̥, *r̥, *j̥
    • *w, *l, *r, *j
  • Fricative initials
    • *s, *sw, *sl, *sr, *ɕ, *x, *xw, *xl, *xr, *h
    • *z, *zl, *zr, *ʑ, *ɣ, *ɣw, *ɣl, *ʁ, *ɦ
  • Initial clusters beginning with fricatives
    • *xp, *xpl, *xpr, *xt, *xk, *xkw, *xkl, *xklw, *xkr, *xkrw, *xq, *xql
    • *sp, *spw, *spl, *st, *stl, *str, *sk, *skw, *skl, *skr, *skrw, *sq, *sqr
    • *zb, *zd, *zdw, *zgr
Vowels and diphthongs
  • *a, *a, *i̯a, *u̯a, *ɯ̯a
  • *ə̯, *i̯ə, *u̯ə
  • *ɛ, *i̯ɛ, *e, *i̯e
  • *ɔ, *u̯ɔ, *ɯ̯ɔ, *o, *i̯o, *u̯o, *ɯ̯o
  • *i̯, *u̯i, *ie ,iə, *ia, *iɛ
  • *u, *i̯u, *ɯ̯u, *ue, *uə, *ua, *uo, *uɔ, *uɯ
  • *ɯ, *ɯe, *ɯə, *ɯa, *ɯɔ, *ɯu

Lexicon

Ostapirat (2018, 2023)

Weera Ostapirat (2018a)[7] reconstructs disyllabic forms for Proto-Kra–Dai, rather than sesquisyllabic or purely monosyllabic forms. His Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions also contains the finals */-c/ and */-l/.[8] Ostapirat (2018b:113)[9] lists the following of his own Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions.

Notes:

  • */K-/: either /k-/ or /q-/
  • */C-/: unspecified consonant
  • */T-/ and */N-/ are distinct from */t-/ and */n-/.
GlossProto-Kra–Dai
blood*pɤlaːc
bone*Kudɤːk
ear*qɤrɤː
eye*maTaː
hand*(C)imɤː
nose*(ʔ)idaŋ
tongue*(C)əmaː
tooth*lipan
dog*Kamaː
fish*balaː
horn*paquː
louse*KuTuː
fire*(C)apuj
stone*KaTiːl
star*Kadaːw
water*(C)aNam
I (1.SG)*akuː
thou (2.SG)*isuː; amɤː
one*(C)itsɤː
two*saː
die*maTaːj
name*(C)adaːn
full*pətiːk
new*(C)amaːl

Some additional tentative Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions by Ostapirat (2023) include the following.[5]

GlossProto-Kra–Dai
chin*ləqaːŋ A
shoulder pole*ləqaːn A
person*niqun A
bitter*təqam A[lower-alpha 1]
excrement*taqiː C[lower-alpha 2]
rice*rəquː C
young chicken*rəqaːŋ B
fire*apuy A
tooth*ipan A
rain*kipun A
millet*kipaːŋ C
vomit*utaːk D
we (incl.)*atuː A
carry on pole*kətaːp D
break*kətak D
pestle*tsaːk D
sour*qatsum C
wash*(C)atsak D
left*(C)itsaːy
thatch grass*ikaː A
field dike*ikal A
knee*tukuː B
to crow*tikal A
moon*bulaːn A
flower*baluːk D
to weed*bəlaːy A[lower-alpha 3]
spotted*bəlaːŋ B[lower-alpha 4]

Norquest (2020)

Norquest (2020) lists the following of his own Proto-Kra–Dai and other lower-level reconstructions.[6]

Glossp-Kra-Daip-Lakkjap-Kam-Suip-Ong-Bep-Taip-Hlai
thin*C-báːŋ*w̥aːŋ*C-baːŋ*ˀbjaŋ*C-baːŋ
bone*Cudə́ːk*C-ˀɖaːk*r̥ɯk*C-dwoːk*Cuɾɯːk
boat*Cuɖáː*j̊waː*C-ˀɖrwaː*rwaː*C-ɖwaː*Cuɾaː
borrow*C-ɟáːm*l̥aːm*ˀjaːm*ˀjɯːm
village*Cəˀbáːnʔ*ˀbaːnʔ*ˀbaːnʔ*ˀbaːnʔ
winnow basket*Cəˀdóŋʔ*l̥oŋʔ*ˀdɔŋʔ*r̥oːŋ X*ˀdoŋʔ*ɗoŋʔ
to stand*Cəˀɟún*j̊uːn*ˀɟun*j̊un*ˀɟɯn*tɕuːn
dog*kʰ[u]máː*kʰ-mwaː*k-hmaː*m̥aː*m̥aː*hmaː
ditch*[t]-m̥ˠáːŋ*T-m̥jaːŋ*m̥aŋ*m̥ɯəŋ
ant*r-móȶ*mot*r-mət*muːʔ*moc*hmuȶ
bear*kəˀmˠúj*k-Nuːj*ˀmjeː*m̥wiː*ˀmuj
thick*tsəˀnáː*ts-Naː*ˀɳaː*n̥aː*n̥aː*ˀnaː
cold*kəˀȵít*k-Niːt*ˀȵit*n̥iːt*n̥it
stupid*Cəˀŋáːŋh*ˀŋaːŋh*ˀŋaːŋh*ŋ̊əːŋ X
gills*Cəˀŋˠáːk*ˀȵaːk*ŋaːk*ŋ̊ɯək*ˀŋaːk
taro*pəˀrˠáːk*j̊aːk (< *r̥aːk)*ˀrjaːk*ʃaːk*prɯək*hraːk
moan*gəˀráːŋ*j̊aːŋ (< *r̥aːŋ)*ˀraːŋ*graːŋ
hungry*məˀjáːk*m-ˀjaːk*j̊ak*ˀjaːk
stupid*Cəˀwáːʔ*ˀwaːʔ*ˀwaːʔ

Lower-level reconstructions

Norquest (2021) provides the following lower-level reconstructions for each branch of Kra–Dai.[10]

Glossp-BiaoLakkjap-Kam–Suip-Krap-Hlaip-Bep-Tai
house*ljaːk*r̥aːn*qran*hrɯːn*raːn*rɤːn
road*tsaːŋ*qʰwən*qron*kuːn*ʃwən*r̥wɤn
heavy*N-tsak*C-dʑan*qχəl*kʰɯn*xən*n̥ak
leg*puk*p-qaː*C-qaː*kʰok*kok*f-qaː
neck*ʔən*ʔdənʔ*C-joː*hljoŋʔ*liəŋX*ɣoː
beard*m-luːt*m-nrut*mumʔ*hmɯːmʔ*mumX*mumh
wet field*raːh*ʔraːh*naː*hnaːɦ*njaː*naː
crow*kaː*qaː*ʔak*ʔaːk*ʔak*kaː
needle*tɕʰəm*tɕʰəm*ŋot*hŋuc*ŋaːʔ*qjem
mortar*krˠəm*ʔdru*ɾəw*ɦoːk*grok
tongue*m-laː*maː*l-maː*hliːnʔ*liːnX*linʔ
wing*C-faːh*ʀwaː*pʰiːk*pik*piːk
skin*ŋʀaː*taː*n̥əːŋ*n̥aŋ*n̥aŋ
to shoot*pɛŋh*hɲɯː*ɲəː*ɲɯː
to fly*[C-]pənh*C-pˠənʔ*ɓin*ʔbjən*ʔbil
bee*mlet*luk*reː*kəːj*ʃaːŋX*prɯŋʔ
vegetable*ʔmaː*ʔop*ɓɯː ʈʂʰəj*ʃak*prak
red*hlaːnʔ*hraːnʔ*r̥iŋ*C-djeːŋ
to bite*kat*klət*ʈajh*hŋaːɲʔ*gap*ɢɦap
to descend*lojʔ*C-ɭuːjh*caɰʔ*l̥uːj*roːŋ*N-ɭoŋ

Note that like Jiamao, Proto-Be does not distinguish between tone categories B and C, but rather only has an X category, which Chen (2018) names as tone category BC.[11]

See also

Further reading

  • Sagart, Laurent. 2019. A model of the origin of Kra-Dai tones. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 48(1), 1–29. doi:10.1163/19606028-04801004
  • Sagart, Laurent. 2020. "Labial fortitions in Kra-Dai." In Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian.
  • Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.

Notes

  1. cf. Biao tʰam¹ < *t-qam
  2. cf. Biao tʰai³ < *t-q-
  3. The proto-tone is from Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction.
  4. The proto-tone is from Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction.

References

  1. Benedict, Paul K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture, with a glossary of roots. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files Press.
  2. Wu, Anqi 吴安其. 2002. Hanzangyu tongyuan yanjiu 汉藏语同源研究. Beijing: Minzu University Press 中央民族大学出版社. ISBN 7-81056-611-3
  3. 1 2 Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. Dongtai yuzu gailun 侗台语族概论 / An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. ISBN 9787500416814
  4. 1 2 Ostapirat, Weera. 2009. Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture, 28(2), 41–56.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Ostapirat, Weera (2023). Proto-Kra–Dai consonants: an outline and outstanding issues. 32nd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 2023), May 18, 2023. Chiang Mai University.
  6. 1 2 3 Norquest, Peter. 2020. A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra-Dai. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0389866
  7. Ostapirat, Weera. 2018a. Reconstructing Disyllabic Kra-Dai. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
  8. Ostapirat, Weera. 2009. Proto-Tai and Kra–Dai finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture Vol. 28 No. 2 (July – December 2009).
  9. Ostapirat, Weera. 2018b. "Macrophyletic Trees of East Asian Languages Re examined." In Let's Talk about Trees, ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid. Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. doi:10.15021/00009006
  10. Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
  11. Chen, Yen-ling (2018). Proto-Ong-Be (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Hawaii at Manoa.
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