Why should Java 8's Optional not be used in arguments

Question

I've read on many Web sites Optional should be used as a return type only, and not used in method arguments. I'm struggling to find a logical reason why. For example I have a piece of logic which has 2 optional parameters. Therefore I think it would make sense to write my method signature like this (solution 1):

public int calculateSomething(Optional<String> p1, Optional<BigDecimal> p2) {
    // my logic
}

Many web pages specify Optional should not be used as method arguments. With this in mind, I could use the following method signature and add a clear Javadoc comment to specify that the arguments may be null, hoping future maintainers will read the Javadoc and therefore always carry out null checks prior to using the arguments (solution 2):

public int calculateSomething(String p1, BigDecimal p2) {
    // my logic
}

Alternatively I could replace my method with four public methods to provide a nicer interface and make it more obvious p1 and p2 are optional (solution 3):

public int calculateSomething() {
    calculateSomething(null, null);
}

public int calculateSomething(String p1) {
    calculateSomething(p1, null);
}

public int calculateSomething(BigDecimal p2) {
    calculateSomething(null, p2);
}

public int calculateSomething(String p1, BigDecimal p2) {
    // my logic
}

Now I try writing the code of the class which invokes this piece of logic for each approach. I first retrieve the two input parameters from another object which returns Optionals and then, I invoke calculateSomething. Therefore, if solution 1 is used the calling code would look like this:

Optional<String> p1 = otherObject.getP1();
Optional<BigInteger> p2 = otherObject.getP2();
int result = myObject.calculateSomething(p1, p2);

if solution 2 is used, the calling code would look like this:

Optional<String> p1 = otherObject.getP1();
Optional<BigInteger> p2 = otherObject.getP2();
int result = myObject.calculateSomething(p1.orElse(null), p2.orElse(null));

if solution 3 is applied, I could use the code above or I could use the following (but it's significantly more code):

Optional<String> p1 = otherObject.getP1();
Optional<BigInteger> p2 = otherObject.getP2();
int result;
if (p1.isPresent()) {
    if (p2.isPresent()) {
        result = myObject.calculateSomething(p1, p2);
    } else {
        result = myObject.calculateSomething(p1);
    }
} else {
    if (p2.isPresent()) {
        result = myObject.calculateSomething(p2);
    } else {
        result = myObject.calculateSomething();
    }
}

So my question is: Why is it considered bad practice to use Optionals as method arguments (see solution 1)? It looks like the most readable solution to me and makes it most obvious that the parameters could be empty/null to future maintainers. (I'm aware the designers of Optional intended it to only be used as a return type, but I can't find any logical reasons not to use it in this scenario).

Answer 1

Oh, those coding styles are to be taken with a bit of salt.

1. (+) Passing an Optional result to another method, without any semantic analysis; leaving that to the method, is quite alright.
2. (-) Using Optional parameters causing conditional logic inside the methods is literally contra-productive.
3. (-) Needing to pack an argument in an Optional, is suboptimal for the compiler, and does an unnecessary wrapping.
4. (-) In comparison to nullable parameters Optional is more costly.
5. (-) The risk of someone passing the Optional as null in actual parameters.

In general: Optional unifies two states, which have to be unraveled. Hence better suited for result than input, for the complexity of the data flow.

Answer 2

The best post I've seen on the topic was written by Daniel Olszewski:

Although it might be tempting to consider Optional for not mandatory method parameters, such a solution pale in comparison with other possible alternatives. To illustrate the problem, examine the following constructor declaration:

public SystemMessage(String title, String content, Optional<Attachment> attachment) {
    // assigning field values
}

At first glance it may look as a right design decision. After all, we explicitly marked the attachment parameter as optional. However, as for calling the constructor, client code can become a little bit clumsy.

SystemMessage withoutAttachment = new SystemMessage("title", "content", Optional.empty());
Attachment attachment = new Attachment();
SystemMessage withAttachment = new SystemMessage("title", "content", Optional.ofNullable(attachment));

Instead of providing clarity, the factory methods of the Optional class only distract the reader. Note there’s only one optional parameter, but imagine having two or three. Uncle Bob definitely wouldn’t be proud of such code

When a method can accept optional parameters, it’s preferable to adopt the well-proven approach and design such case using method overloading. In the example of the SystemMessage class, declaring two separate constructors are superior to using Optional.

public SystemMessage(String title, String content) {
    this(title, content, null);
}

public SystemMessage(String title, String content, Attachment attachment) {
    // assigning field values
}

That change makes client code much simpler and easier to read.

SystemMessage withoutAttachment = new SystemMessage("title", "content");
Attachment attachment = new Attachment();
SystemMessage withAttachment = new SystemMessage("title", "content", attachment);

Answer 3

There are almost no good reasons for not using Optional as parameters. The arguments against this rely on arguments from authority (see Brian Goetz - his argument is we can't enforce non null optionals) or that the Optional arguments may be null (essentially the same argument). Of course, any reference in Java can be null, we need to encourage rules being enforced by the compiler, not programmers memory (which is problematic and does not scale).

Functional programming languages encourage Optional parameters. One of the best ways of using this is to have multiple optional parameters and using liftM2 to use a function assuming the parameters are not empty and returning an optional (see http://www.functionaljava.org/javadoc/4.4/functionaljava/fj/data/Option.html#liftM2-fj.F-). Java 8 has unfortunately implemented a very limited library supporting optional.

As Java programmers we should only be using null to interact with legacy libraries.

Answer 4

Let's make something perfectly clear: in other languages, there is no general recommendation against the use of a Maybe type as a field type, a constructor parameter type, a method parameter type, or a function parameter type.

So if you "shouldn't" use Optional as a parameter type in Java, the reason is specific to Optional, to Java, or to both.

Reasoning that might apply to other Maybe types, or other languages, is probably not valid here.

Per Brian Goetz,

[W]e did have a clear intention when adding [Optional], and it was not to be a general purpose Maybe type, as much as many people would have liked us to do so. Our intention was to provide a limited mechanism for library method return types where there needed to be a clear way to represent "no result", and using null for such was overwhelmingly likely to cause errors.

For example, you probably should never use it for something that returns an array of results, or a list of results; instead return an empty array or list. You should almost never use it as a field of something or a method parameter.

So the answer is specific to Optional: it isn't "a general purpose Maybe type"; as such, it is limited, and it may be limited in ways that limit its usefulness as a field type or a parameter type.

That said, in practice, I've rarely found using Optional as a field type or a parameter type to be an issue. If Optional, despite its limitations, works as a parameter type or a field type for your use case, use it.

Answer 5

The pattern with Optional is for one to avoid returning null. It's still perfectly possible to pass in null to a method.

While these aren't really official yet, you can use JSR-308 style annotations to indicate whether or not you accept null values into the function. Note that you'd have to have the right tooling to actually identify it, and it'd provide more of a static check than an enforceable runtime policy, but it would help.

public int calculateSomething(@NotNull final String p1, @NotNull final String p2) {}

Answer 6

This advice is a variant of the "be as unspecific as possible regarding inputs and as specific as possible regarding outputs" rule of thumb.

Usually if you have a method that takes a plain non-null value, you can map it over the Optional, so the plain version is strictly more unspecific regarding inputs. However there are a bunch of possible reasons why you would want to require an Optional argument nonetheless:

• you want your function to be used in conjunction with another API that returns an Optional
• Your function should return something other than an empty Optional if the given value is empty
• You think Optional is so awesome that whoever uses your API should be required to learn about it ;-)

Answer 7

Check out the JavaDoc in JDK10, https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/api/java/util/Optional.html, an API note is added:

API Note: Optional is primarily intended for use as a method return type where there is a clear need to represent "no result," and where using null is likely to cause errors.

Answer 8

Maybe I will provoke a bunch of down-votes and negative comments, but... I cannot stand.

Disclaimer: what I write below is not really an answer to the original question, but rather my thoughts on the topic. And the only source for it is my thoughts and my experience (with Java and other languages).

First let's check, why would anyone like to use Optional at all?

For me the reason is simple: unlike other languages java does not have built-in capability to define variable (or type) as nullable or not. All "object"-variables are nullable and all primitive-types are not. For the sake of simplicity let't not consider primitive types in further discussion, so I will claim simply that all variables are nullable.

Why would one need to declare variables as nullable/non-nullable? Well, the reason for me is: explicit is always better, than implicit. Besides having explicit decoration (e.g. annotation or type) could help static analyzer (or compiler) to catch some null-pointer related issues.

Many people argue in the comments above, that functions do not need to have nullable arguments. Instead overloads should be used. But such statement is only good in a school-book. In real life there are different situations. Consider class, which represents settings of some system, or personal data of some user, or in fact any composite data-structure, which contains lots of fields - many of those with repeated types, and some of the fields are mandatory while others are optional. In such cases inheritance/constructor overloads do not really help.

Random example: Let's say, we need to collect data about people. But some people don't want to provide all the data. And of course this is POD, so basically type with value-semantics, so I want it to be more or less immutable (no setters).

class PersonalData {
    private final String name; // mandatory
    private final int age; // mandatory
    private final Address homeAddress; // optional
    private final PhoneNumber phoneNumber; // optional. Dedicated class to handle constraints
    private final BigDecimal income; // optional.
    // ... further fields

    // How many constructor- (or factory-) overloads do we need to handle all cases
    // without nullable arguments? If I am not mistaken, 8. And what if we have more optional
    // fields?

    // ...
}

So, IMO discussion above shows, that even though mostly we can survive without nullable arguments, but sometimes it is not really feasible.

Now we come to the problem: if some of the arguments are nullable and others are not, how do we know, which one?

Approach 1: All arguments are nullable (according to java standrd, except primitive types). So we check all of them.

Result: code explodes with checks, which are mostly unneeded, because as we discussed above almost all of the time we can go ahead with nullable variables, and only in some rare cases "nullables" are needed.

Approach 2: Use documentation and/or comments to describe, which arguments/fields are nullable and which not.

Result: It does not really work. People are lazy to write and read the docs. Besides lately the trend is, that we should avoid writing documentation in favor of making the code itself self-describing. Besides all the reasoning about modifying the code and forgeting to modify the documentation is still valid.

Approach 3: @Nullable @NonNull etc... I personally find them to be nice. But there are certain disadvantages : (e.g. they are only respected by external tools, not the compiler), the worst of which is that they are not standard, which means, that 1. I would need to add external dependency to my project to benefit from them, and 2. The way they are treated by different systems are not uniform. As far as I know, they were voted out of official Java standard (and I don't know if there are any plans to try again).

Approach 4: Optional<>. The disadvantages are already mentioned in other comments, the worst of which is (IMO) performance penalty. Also it adds a bit of boilerplate, even thoough I personally find, use of Optional.empty() and Optional.of() to be not so bad. The advantages are obvious:

1. It is part of the Java standard.
2. It makes obvious to the reader of the code (or to the user of API), that these arguments may be null. Moreover, it forces both: user of the API and developer of the method to aknolage this fact by explicitly wrapping/unwrapping the values (which is not the case, when annotations like @Nullable etc. are used).

So in my point, there is no black-and-white in regard of any methodology including this one. I personally ended up with the following guidelines and conventions (which are still not strict rules):

1. Inside my own code all the variables must be not-null (but probably Optional<>).
2. If I have a method with one or two optional arguments I try to redesign it using overloads, inheritance etc.
3. If I cannot find the solution in reasonable time, I start thinking, if the performance is critical (i.e. if there are millions of the objects to be processed). Usually it is not the case.
4. If not, I use Optional as argument types and/or field types.

There are still grey areas, where these conventions do not work:

• We need high performance (e.g. processing of huge amounts of data, so that total execution time is very large, or situations when throughput is critical). In this cases performance penalty introduced by Optional may be really unwanted.
• We are on the boundary of the code, which we write ourselves, e.g.: we read from the DB, Rest Endpoint, parse file etc.
• Or we just use some external libraries, which do not follow our conventions, so again, we should be careful...

By the way, the last two cases can also be the source of need in the optional fields/arguments. I.e. when the structure of the data is not developed by ourselves, but is imposed by some external interfaces, db-schemas etc...

At the end, I think, that one should think about the problem, which is being solved, and try to find the appropriate tools. If Optional<> is appropriate, then I see no reason not to use it.

Edit: Approach 5: I used this one recently, when I could not use Optional. The idea is simply to use naming convention for method arguments and class variables. I used "maybe"-prefix, so that if e.g. "url" argument is nullable, then it becomes maybeUrl. The advantage is that it slightly improves understandability of the intent (and does not have disadvantages of other approaches, like external dependencies or performance penalty). But there are also drawbacks, like: there is no tooling to support this convention (your IDE will not show you any warning, if you access "maybe"-variable without first checking it). Another problem is that it only helps, when applied consistently by all people working on the project.

Answer 9

This seems a bit silly to me, but the only reason I can think of is that object arguments in method parameters already are optional in a way - they can be null. Therefore forcing someone to take an existing object and wrap it in an optional is sort of pointless.

That being said, chaining methods together that take/return optionals is a reasonable thing to do, e.g. Maybe monad.

Answer 10

Accepting Optional as parameters causes unnecessary wrapping at caller level.

For example in the case of:

public int calculateSomething(Optional<String> p1, Optional<BigDecimal> p2 {}

Suppose you have two not-null strings (ie. returned from some other method):

String p1 = "p1"; 
String p2 = "p2";

You're forced to wrap them in Optional even if you know they are not Empty.

This get even worse when you have to compose with other "mappable" structures, ie. Eithers:

Either<Error, String> value = compute().right().map((s) -> calculateSomething(
< here you have to wrap the parameter in a Optional even if you know it's a 
  string >));

ref:

methods shouldn't expect Option as parameters, this is almost always a code smell that indicated a leakage of control flow from the caller to the callee, it should be responsibility of the caller to check the content of an Option

ref. https://github.com/teamdigitale/digital-citizenship-functions/pull/148#discussion_r170862749

Answer 11

My take is that Optional should be a Monad and these are not conceivable in Java.

In functional programming you deal with pure and higher order functions that take and compose their arguments only based on their "business domain type". Composing functions that feed on, or whose computation should be reported to, the real-world (so called side effects) requires the application of functions that take care of automatically unpacking the values out of the monads representing the outside world (State, Configuration, Futures, Maybe, Either, Writer, etc...); this is called lifting. You can think of it as a kind of separation of concerns.

Mixing these two levels of abstraction doesn't facilitate legibility so you're better off just avoiding it.

Answer 12

So, if you would permit the pun, Oracle issued an oracle:

Thou shalt not use Optional but for function return values.

I love it how most of the answers so far are going along with the narrative of Oracle's oracle, which is re-iterated unquestioned all over the interwebz, in the "many Web sites" mentioned in the question. This is very typical of stack overflow: if something is allegedly supposed to be a certain way, and you ask why it is supposed to be that way, almost everyone will offer reasons why; almost nobody will question whether it should in fact be that way.

So, here is a dissenting opinion:

You can completely eliminate null from your code base by using Optional everywhere: not only in function return values, but also in function parameters, in class members, in array members, even in local variables.

I have done it in a 100k-lines-of-code project. It worked.

If you decide to go along this path, then you will need to be thorough, so you will have a lot of work to do. The example mentioned in the accepted answer with Optional.ofNulable() should never occur, because if you are thorough, then you should not have null anywhere, and therefore no need for Optional.ofNullable(). In that 100k-lines-of-code project that I mentioned above, I have only used Optional.ofNullable() a couple of times when receiving results from external methods that I have no control over.

Now, if you decide to go along this path, your solution will not be the most performant solution possible, because you will be allocating lots of instances of Optional. However:

1. It is nothing but a runtime performance disadvantage.
2. Although the disadvantage is non-negligible, it is also not severe.
3. It is Java's problem, not your problem.

Let me explain that last bit.

Java does not offer explicit nullability of reference types as C# does (since version 8.0) so it is inferior in this regard. (I said "in this regard"; in other regards, Java is better; but that's off-topic right now.)

The only proper alternative to explicit nullability of reference types is the Optional type. (And it is arguably even slightly better, because with Optional you can indicate optional-of-optional if you must, whereas with explicit nullability you cannot have ReferenceType??, or at least you cannot in C# as it is currently implemented.)

Optional does not have to add overhead, it only does so in Java. That's because Java also does not support true value types, as C# and Scala do. In this regard, Java is severely inferior to those languages. (Again, I said "in this regard"; in other regards, Java is better; but that's off-topic right now.) If Java did support true value types, then Optional would have been implemented as a single machine word, which would mean that the runtime overhead of using it would be zero.

So, the question that it ultimately boils down to is:

Do you want perfect clarity and type safety in your code, or do you prefer maximum performance?

I believe that for high-level languages, (of which Java certainly aims to be one,) this question was settled a long time ago.

Answer 13

Another reason to be carefully when pass an Optional as parameter is that a method should do one thing... If you pass an Optional param you could favor do more than one thing, it could be similar to pass a boolean param.

public void method(Optional<MyClass> param) {
     if(param.isPresent()) {
         //do something
     } else {
         //do some other
     }
 }

Answer 14

Using Optional as parameters might be useful in some use cases which involves protobufs or setting fields in a configuration object.

public void setParameters(Optional<A> op1, Optional<B> op2) {
    ProtoRequest.Builder builder = ProtoRequest.newBuilder();
    op1.ifPresent(builder::setOp1);
    op2.ifPresent(builder::setOp2);
...
}

I think in such cases it might be useful to have optional as parameters. API receiving the proto request would handle the different fields. If a function is not doing additional computations on these parameters then using Optional might be simpler.

public void setParameters(A op1, B op2) {
    ProtoRequest.Builder builder = ProtoRequest.newBuilder();
    if (op1 != null) {
        builder.setOp1(op1);
    }
    if (op2 != null) {
        builder.setOp2(op2);
    }
...
}

Answer 15

I think that is because you usually write your functions to manipulate data, and then lift it to Optional using map and similar functions. This adds the default Optional behavior to it. Of course, there might be cases, when it is necessary to write your own auxilary function that works on Optional.

Answer 16

I believe the reson of being is you have to first check whether or not Optional is null itself and then try to evaluate value it wraps. Too many unnecessary validations.

Answer 17

I know that this question is more about opinion rather than hard facts. But I recently moved from being a .net developer to a java one, so I have only recently joined the Optional party. Also, I'd prefer to state this as a comment, but since my point level does not allow me to comment, I am forced to put this as an answer instead.

What I have been doing, which has served me well as a rule of thumb. Is to use Optionals for return types, and only use Optionals as parameters, if I require both the value of the Optional, and weather or not the Optional had a value within the method.

If I only care about the value, I check isPresent before calling the method, if I have some kind of logging or different logic within the method that depends on if the value exists, then I will happily pass in the Optional.

Answer 18

Optionals aren't designed for this purpose, as explained nicely by Brian Goetz.

You can always use @Nullable to denote that a method argument can be null. Using an optional does not really enable you to write your method logic more neatly.

Answer 19

One more approach, what you can do is

// get your optionals first
Optional<String> p1 = otherObject.getP1();
Optional<BigInteger> p2 = otherObject.getP2();

// bind values to a function
Supplier<Integer> calculatedValueSupplier = () -> { // your logic here using both optional as state}

Once you have built a function(supplier in this case) you will be able to pass this around as any other variable and would be able to call it using

calculatedValueSupplier.apply();

The idea here being whether you have got optional value or not will be internal detail of your function and will not be in parameter. Thinking functions when thinking about optional as parameter is actually very useful technique that I have found.

As to your question whether you should actually do it or not is based on your preference, but as others said it makes your API ugly to say the least.

Answer 20

At first, I also preferred to pass Optionals as parameter, but if you switch from an API-Designer perspective to a API-User perspective, you see the disadvantages.

For your example, where each parameter is optional, I would suggest to change the calculation method into an own class like follows:

Optional<String> p1 = otherObject.getP1();
Optional<BigInteger> p2 = otherObject.getP2();

MyCalculator mc = new MyCalculator();
p1.map(mc::setP1);
p2.map(mc::setP2);
int result = mc.calculate();

Answer 21

This is because we have different requirements to an API user and an API developer.

A developer is responsible for providing a precise specification and a correct implementation. Therefore if the developer is already aware that an argument is optional the implementation must deal with it correctly, whether it being a null or an Optional. The API should be as simple as possible to the user, and null is the simplest.

On the other hand, the result is passed from the API developer to the user. However the specification is complete and verbose, there is still a chance that the user is either unaware of it or just lazy to deal with it. In this case, the Optional result forces the user to write some extra code to deal with a possible empty result.

Answer 22

First of all, if you're using method 3, you can replace those last 14 lines of code with this:

int result = myObject.calculateSomething(p1.orElse(null), p2.orElse(null));

The four variations you wrote are convenience methods. You should only use them when they're more convenient. That's also the best approach. That way, the API is very clear which members are necessary and which aren't. If you don't want to write four methods, you can clarify things by how you name your parameters:

public int calculateSomething(String p1OrNull, BigDecimal p2OrNull)

This way, it's clear that null values are allowed.

Your use of p1.orElse(null) illustrates how verbose our code gets when using Optional, which is part of why I avoid it. Optional was written for functional programming. Streams need it. Your methods should probably never return Optional unless it's necessary to use them in functional programming. There are methods, like Optional.flatMap() method, that requires a reference to a function that returns Optional. Here's its signature:

public <U> Optional<U> flatMap(Function<? super T, ? extends Optional<? extends U>> mapper)

So that's usually the only good reason for writing a method that returns Optional. But even there, it can be avoided. You can pass a getter that doesn't return Optional to a method like flatMap(), by wrapping it in a another method that converts the function to the right type. The wrapper method looks like this:

public static <T, U> Function<? super T, Optional<U>> optFun(Function<T, U> function) {
    return t -> Optional.ofNullable(function.apply(t));
}

So suppose you have a getter like this: String getName()

You can't pass it to flatMap like this:

opt.flatMap(Widget::getName) // Won't work!

But you can pass it like this:

opt.flatMap(optFun(Widget::getName)) // Works great!

Outside of functional programming, Optionals should be avoided.

Brian Goetz said it best when he said this:

The reason Optional was added to Java is because this:

return Arrays.asList(enclosingInfo.getEnclosingClass().getDeclaredMethods())
    .stream()
    .filter(m -> Objects.equals(m.getName(), enclosingInfo.getName())
    .filter(m ->  Arrays.equals(m.getParameterTypes(), parameterClasses))
    .filter(m -> Objects.equals(m.getReturnType(), returnType))
    .findFirst()
    .getOrThrow(() -> new InternalError(...));

is cleaner than this:

Method matching =
    Arrays.asList(enclosingInfo.getEnclosingClass().getDeclaredMethods())
    .stream()
    .filter(m -> Objects.equals(m.getName(), enclosingInfo.getName())
    .filter(m ->  Arrays.equals(m.getParameterTypes(), parameterClasses))
    .filter(m -> Objects.equals(m.getReturnType(), returnType))
    .getFirst();
if (matching == null)
  throw new InternalError("Enclosing method not found");
return matching;

Answer 23

Irrespective of Java 8, Use old school method overloading technique to bring clarity and flexibility, suppose you have following method with two args

public void doSomething(arg1,arg2);

in case you want to add additional optional parameter then overload the method

public void doSomething(arg1,arg2,arg3) {
Result result = doSomething(arg1,arg2);
// do additional working
}

Answer 24

A good example were Optional as arguments would be nice is JPA Repositories. Id love to do something like findByNameAndSurname(Optional,Optional). That way, if the Optional is empty, no WHERE param=y is performed

Answer 25

If wanting an optional primitive type, just use the primitive's class.

For those coming from a C++ background and got confused.

E.g. for an optional boolean, use Boolean.

The biggest problem is that Optional<Boolean> itself could be set to null, so now you have three states instead of two.

E.g. Optional<Boolean> can be (null, empty, or not-empty) but Boolean can only be (null or non-empty).

Answer 26

I noticed that you mentioned a a number of approaches, and during the years since the question was asked, one alternative wasn't really explored - the Builder design pattern.

The idea is that with a builder you only set those parameters that you need, and it scales very well as the number of arguments grows (as opposed to overloading).

Here's an example of a class you could use:

public class Something {
    private String p1;
    private Integer p2;

    private Something(String p1, Integer p2) {
        this.p1 = p1;
        this.p2 = p2;
    }

    public static class Builder {

        private String p1;
        private Integer p2;

        public Builder setP1(String value) {
            this.p1 = value;
            return this;
        }

        public Builder setP2(Integer value) {
            this.p2 = value;
            return this;
        }

        public Something build() {
            // Validate input and set defaults here

            return new Something(p1, p2);
        }
    }
}

Here's how you'd use it:

var something = Something.Builder().setP1("blah").setP2(12345).build();
calculate(something); // or something.calculate()

Now you may notice that the above implementation contains a fair amount of boilerplate code, which is its main downside. Having said that, there are libraries that eliminate it for you, e.g. FreeBuilder, making the code short and tidy (relatively speaking - Java isn't known for its code compactness).