Ghiyāth al-Dīn Muḥammad I
Sultan
Silver coin dated back to Ghiyāth al-Dīn Muhammad's rule, minted in Erzurum.
Sultan of the Eretnids
First reign	1352–1354
Predecessor	Eretna
Successor	Jafar
Regent	Khoja Ali Shah
Second reign	1355–1365
Predecessor	Jafar
Successor	ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī
Died	1365 Kayseri, Eretnids
Burial	Köşkmedrese, Kayseri
Issue	ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī Eretna
House	Eretnids
Father	Eretna
Mother	Isfahan Shah Khatun
Religion	Islam

Ghiyāth al-Dīn Muḥammad I (died 1365) was the second Sultan of the Eretnids in central and eastern Anatolia, ruling from 1352 until his death. He was enthroned at a young age and struggled to maintain his authority over the state his father, Eretna, had founded. Although he was initially preferred over his older brother Jafar, Muḥammad was deposed by his emirs early into his reign and was replaced by Jafar. After some time in exile, he returned, restored his throne, and killed his brother. Though, throughout his reign, he dealt with rebellions and lost land to local Turkoman lords, the Dulkadirids, and the Ottomans. After putting an end to his former vizier Khoja Ali Shah's revolt and returning to the capital, Kayseri, Muḥammad was murdered by his emirs, who crowned his son Ali as the new sultan.

Early life and background

Muḥammad was born to Eretna and Isfahan Shah Khatun. His mother, Isfahan Shah Khatun, was a relative of the Jalayirid ruler Hasan Buzurg.^[1] Muḥammad's father, Eretna, was an officer of Uyghur origin initially in the service of Chupan and his son Tīmūrtāsh. He relocated to Anatolia following Tīmūrtāsh's appointment as the local Ilkhanid governor and took part in his campaigns to subdue the Turkoman chiefs of the western periphery of the peninsula. This was cut short by Tīmūrtāsh's downfall, after which Eretna went into hiding. Upon the dissolution of the Ilkhanate, he aligned himself with Hasan Buzurg, who eventually left Anatolia for Eretna to govern when he returned east to clash with the rival Chobanids and other Mongol lords. Eretna later sought recognition from the Mamluk Egypt to consolidate his power, although he played a delicate game of alternating his allegiance between the Mamluks and the Mongols. In 1343, he declared independence as the sultan of his domains. His reign was largely described to be prosperous with his efforts to maintain order in his realm such that he was known as Köse Peyghamber (lit. 'the beardless prophet'). Eretna died in 1352.^[2]

Rise to the throne and first reign

Muḥammad was studying in Konya when his father passed away. He was liked by most Eretnid emirs, and upon his father's death, Eretna's vizier Khoja Ali secretly invited Muḥammad to Kayseri to become the new sultan, although Muḥammad's older brother Jafar was already residing there. Jafar was imprisoned by Muḥammad for some time, but he eventually escaped to Egypt. However, Muḥammad's rule did not fare well as he behaved debaucherously and treated his siblings unfairly. Since he was young, authority came into the hands of his emirs.^[3] Turkoman tribes took control of the region of Canik.^[4] Although the Dulkadirids to the south expanded their borders at the expense of the Eretnids, the Dulkadirid beg Zayn al-Dīn Qarāja would soon seek protection in Muḥammad's court fleeing from the Mamluks, who were preparing to prosecute him for the rebellion he led. On 22 September 1353, Muḥammad deported Qarāja to Mamluk-controlled Aleppo in exchange for a payment of 500 thousand dinars by the Mamluks, who would later transport Qarāja to Cairo for his execution.^[5] This did not affect the fate of Muḥammad, as he was deposed by his emirs, and his half-brother Jafar reigned for a year.^[3]

Second reign and death

After losing the throne to his half-brother, Muḥammad fled to Konya^[3] taking refuge amongst the Karamanids^[6] and later Sivas. The governor of Sivas, Ibn Kurd, recognized him and assisted him in the restoration of his rule.^[3] In April 1355, he faced Jafar at the Battle of Yalnızgöz.^[6] He came to terms with the vizier Ali Khoja and killed Jafar, reclaiming his rule.^[3] In 1361, as a reprisal to a raid by Tatars of the Chavdar tribe, Ottoman Beg Murad I captured Ankara Castle from the Eretnids. Muḥammad allied himself with the Dulkadirids in September 1362 in a joint campaign to drive the Mamluks away from Malatya. Mamluk governor of Damascus, Yalbugha, and his 24 thousand-strong force marched north and raided Eretnid and Dulkadirid lands. However, this effort failed to regain Mamluk control.^[7]

In 1364, Khoja Ali Shah led an uprising against Muḥammad and marched towards Kayseri. Muḥammad was defeated and had to request assistance from the Mamluk Sultan Al-Kamil Sha'ban. Upon a decree by the Mamluk Sultan, the governor of Aleppo sent his forces to aid Muḥammad, with which he subdued and executed Khoja Ali Shah in 1365. Soon after, other emirs who wanted to preserve their autonomy, such as Hajji Shadgeldi and Hajji Ibrahim,^[6] killed Muḥammad in Kayseri before he could reinforce his authority, enthroning his son Ali.^[8] Around that time, the eastern part of the realm, including Erzincan, Erzurum, and Bayburt, had come under the rule of a local figure, Ahi Ayna.^[9] Although İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı put Muḥammad's age at about 25 years old when he died,^[8] this contradicts with the belief that his son ʿAlī was 13 years old at the time of his accession to the throne.^[10]

Family

Muḥammad's son ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī succeeded him after his murder. According to Karamanname, Muḥammad also had an older son named Eretna. He was at some point declared as the ruler but was defeated and imprisoned by the Karamanids. While he held the throne for some time, he was eventually killed by ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn of Karaman. Muḥammad's son Eretna had two sons named Esenbogha and Ghazi, the first of which is reputed to have a tomb in Niğde. However, he is not mentioned by any sources of that era other than Karamanname.^[11]

References

Bibliography

• Alıç, Samet (2020). "Memlûkler Tarafından Katledilen Dulkadir Emirleri" [The Dulkadir's Emirs Killed by the Mamluks]. The Journal of Selcuk University Social Sciences Institute (in Turkish) (43): 83–94. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
• Cahen, Claude (2012). "Eretna". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. II. E. J. Brill.
• Çayırdağ, Mehmet (August 2000). "Eretnalı Beyliğinin Paraları" [Coinage of the Eretna Principality]. BELLETEN (in Turkish). Turkish Historical Society. 64 (240): 435–452. doi:10.37879/belleten.2000.435. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
• Göde, Kemal (1995). "Eretnaoğulları". TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
• Sinclair, Thomas (6 December 2019). Eastern Trade and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages: Pegolotti’s Ayas-Tabriz Itinerary and Its Commercial Context. Taylor & Francis.
• Uzunçarşılı, İsmail Hakkı (20 April 1968). "Sivas - Kayseri ve Dolaylarında Eretna Devleti" [State of Eretna in Sivas - Kayseri and Around]. BELLETEN (in Turkish). Turkish Historical Association. 32 (126): 161–190. Retrieved 28 October 2023.