Is there a method of defining something that roughly resembles a curve (in 2D plane) and allows to rapidly find the nearest point on the curved line to another point?
Neither Bezier nor Catmull-Rom curves meet that second criteria because you need either an iterative or some highly complex algorithm to find nearest. The performance requirement comes from having to calculate this for every pixel in an image for a special image processing step.
What I have as a proof of concept is representing every curve as a circle segment. That is fast, but limits the types of possible curves a lot.