Ga
Ga
Example glyphs
Bengali-AssameseGa
TibetanGa
Thai
ค
Malayalam
ഗ
Sinhala
ග
Ashoka BrahmiGa
DevanagariGa
Cognates
Hebrewג
GreekΓ
LatinC, G, Ɣ
CyrillicГ, Ґ
Properties
Phonemic representation/g/ /k/B /kʰ/C
IAST transliterationga Ga
ISCII code pointB5 (181)

^B In Khmer, Tai Viet, Tai Lü, Northern Thai and Tai Khün
^C In Thai and Lao

Ga is the third consonant of Indic abugidas. In modern Indic scripts, ga is derived from the early "Ashoka" Brahmi letter ga, which is probably derived from the Aramaic letter (gimel, /g/) after having gone through the Gupta letter .

Āryabhaṭa numeration

Aryabhata used Devanagari letters for numbers, very similar to the Greek numerals, even after the invention of Indian numerals. The values of the different forms of ग are:[1]

  • ग [gə] = 3 (३)
  • ग [gɪ] = 300 (३००)
  • गु [gʊ] = 30,000 (३० ०००)
  • गृ [gri] = 3,000,000 (३० ०० ०००)
  • गॣ [glə] = 3×108 (३०८)
  • गे [ge] = 3×1010 (३०१०)
  • गै [gɛː] = 3×1012 (३०१२)
  • गो [goː] = 3×1014 (३०१४)
  • गौ [gɔː] = 3×1016 (३०१६)

Historic Ga

There are three different general early historic scripts - Brahmi and its variants, Kharoshthi, and Tocharian, the so-called slanting Brahmi. Ga as found in standard Brahmi, Ga was a simple geometric shape, with slight variations toward the Gupta Ga. The Tocharian Ga Ga did not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form. The third form of ga, in Kharoshthi (Ga) was probably derived from Aramaic separately from the Brahmi letter.

Brahmi Ga

The Brahmi letter Ga, Ga, is probably derived from the Aramaic Gimel g, and is thus related to the modern Latin G and C, and the Greek Gamma. Several identifiable styles of writing the Brahmi Ga can be found, most associated with a specific set of inscriptions from an artifact or diverse records from an historic period.[2] As the earliest and most geometric style of Brahmi, the letters found on the Edicts of Ashoka and other records from around that time are normally the reference form for Brahmi letters, with vowel marks not attested until later forms of Brahmi back-formed to match the geometric writing style.

Brahmi Ga historic forms
Ashoka
(3rd-1st c. BCE)		Girnar
(~150 BCE)		Kushana
(~150-250 CE)		Gujarat
(~250 CE)		Gupta
(~350 CE)

Tocharian Ga

The Tocharian letter Ga is derived from the Brahmi Ga, but does not have an alternate Fremdzeichen form.

Tocharian Ga with vowel marks
GaGāGiGīGuGūGrGr̄GeGaiGoGauGä

Kharoshthi Ga

The Kharoshthi letter Ga is generally accepted as being derived from the Aramaic Gimel , and is thus related to G and C, and Gamma, in addition to the Brahmi Ga.

Devanagari script

Ga (ग) is the third consonant of the Devanagari abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter ka, after having gone through the Gupta letter . Letters that derive from it are the Gujarati letter ગ and the Modi letter 𑘐.

Devanagari Gga

Gga (ॻ) is the character ग with an underbar to represent the voiced velar implosive [ɠ] that occurs in Sindhi. This underbar is distinct from the Devanagari stress sign anudātta. The underbar is fused to the stem of the letter while the anudātta is a stress accent applied to the entire syllable. This underbar used for Sindhi implosives does not exist as a separate character in Unicode. When the ु or ू vowel sign is applied to jja (ॻ), the ु and ू vowel signs are drawn beneath jja. When the उ ( ु) vowel sign or ऊ ( ू) vowel sign is applied to ja with an anudātta (ग॒), the उ ( ु) vowel sign or ऊ ( ू) vowel sign is first placed under ja (ग) and then the anudātta is placed underneath the उ ( ु) vowel sign or ऊ ( ू) vowel sign.[3]

Character Name उ ( ु) vowel sign ऊ ( ू) vowel sign
ॻ (Implosive ga) ॻु ॻू
ग॒ (Ga with anudātta) ग॒ु ग॒ू

An example of a Sindhi word that uses gga (ॻ) is ॻुड़ु (ڳُڙُ), which is of the masculine grammatical gender and means jaggery.[4]

Devanagari Ġa

Ġa (ग़) is the character ग with a single dot underneath, corresponding with the Urdu (غ). It is used in Hindi words of Persian and Arabic origin to denote the voiced velar fricative [ɣ].[5][6]

Devanagari-using Languages

In all languages, ग is pronounced as [gə] or [g] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Devanagari uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

Devanagari ग with vowel marks
GaGāGiGīGuGūGrGr̄GlGl̄GeGaiGoGauG
ग गा गि गी गु गू गृ गॄ गॢ गॣ गे गै गो गौ ग्

Conjuncts with ग

Half form of Ga.

Devanagari exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts. In modern Devanagari texts, most conjuncts are formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". Some conjunct clusters are always represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters. Vertically stacked conjuncts are ubiquitous in older texts, while only a few are still used routinely in modern Devanagari texts. The use of ligatures and vertical conjuncts may vary across languages using the Devanagari script, with Marathi in particular preferring the use of half forms where texts in other languages would show ligatures and vertical stacks.[7]

Ligature conjuncts of ग

True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Devanagari are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra. Nepali and Marathi texts use the "eyelash" Ra half form Ra for an initial "R" instead of repha.

  • Repha र্ (r) + ग (ga) gives the ligature rga: note

  • Eyelash र্ (r) + ग (ga) gives the ligature rga:

  • ग্ (g) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature gra:

  • ग্ (g) + र্ (r) + य (ya) gives the ligature grya:

  • ग্ (g) + न (na) gives the ligature gna:

  • ग্ (g) + न্ (n) + य (ya) gives the ligature gnya:

  • द্ (d) + ग (ga) gives the ligature dga:

  • द্ (d) + ग্ (g) + rakar र (ra) gives the ligature dgra:

Stacked conjuncts of ग

Vertically stacked ligatures are the most common conjunct forms found in Devanagari text. Although the constituent characters may need to be stretched and moved slightly in order to stack neatly, stacked conjuncts can be broken down into recognizable base letters, or a letter and an otherwise standard ligature.

  • ब্ (b) + ग (ga) gives the ligature bga:

  • छ্ (cʰ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature cʰga:

  • ड্ (ḍ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature ḍga:

  • ढ্ (ḍʱ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature ḍʱga:

  • ग্ (g) + ज (ja) gives the ligature gja:

  • ग্ (g) + ज্ (j) + ञ (ña) gives the ligature gjña:

  • ग্ (g) + ल (la) gives the ligature gla:

  • ङ্ (ŋ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature ŋga:

  • Repha र্ (r) + ङ্ (ŋ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature rŋga:

  • ट্ (ṭ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature ṭga:

  • ठ্ (ṭʰ) + ग (ga) gives the ligature ṭʰga:

  • व্ (v) + ग (ga) gives the ligature vga:

Bengali script

The Bengali script গ is derived from Siddhaṃ , and is marked by the lack of horizontal head line, and less geometric shape than its Devanagari counterpart, ग. The inherent vowel of Bengali consonant letters is /ɔ/, so the bare letter গ will sometimes be transliterated as "go" instead of "ga". Adding okar, the "o" vowel mark, gives a reading of /go/. Like all Indic consonants, গ can be modified by marks to indicate another (or no) vowel than its inherent "a".

Bengali গ with vowel marks
gagāgigīgugūgrgr̄gegaigogaug
গ গা গি গী গু গূ গৃ গৄ গে গৈ গো গৌ গ্

গ in Bengali-using languages

গ is used as a basic consonant character in all of the major Bengali script orthographies, including Bengali and Assamese.

Conjuncts with গ

Bengali গ exhibits conjunct ligatures, as is common in Indic scripts, with a tendency towards stacked ligatures.[8]

  • দ্ (d) + গ (ga) gives the ligature dga:

  • গ্ (g) + ধ (dʱa) gives the ligature gdʱa:

  • গ্ (g) + ধ্ (dʱ) + র (ra) gives the ligature gdʱra, with the ra phala suffix:

  • গ্ (g) + ধ্ (dʱ) + য (ya) gives the ligature gdʱya, with the ya phala suffix:

  • গ্ (g) + ল (la) gives the ligature gla:

  • গ্ (g) + ম (ma) gives the ligature gma:

  • গ্ (g) + ন (na) gives the ligature gna:

  • গ্ (g) + ণ (ṇa) gives the ligature gṇa:

  • গ্ (g) + ন্ (n) + য (ya) gives the ligature gnya, with the ya phala suffix:

  • গ্ (g) + র (ra) gives the ligature gra, with the ra phala suffix:

  • গ্ (g) + র্ (r) + য (ya) gives the ligature grya, with the ra phala and ya phala suffixes

  • গ্ (g) + ব (va) gives the ligature gva, with the va phala suffix:

  • গ্ (g) + য (ya) gives the ligature gya, with the ya phala suffix:

  • ল্ (l) + গ (ga) gives the ligature lga:

  • ঙ্ (ŋ) + গ (ga) gives the ligature ŋga:

  • ঙ্ (ŋ) + গ্ (g) + য (ya) gives the ligature ŋgya, with the ya phala suffix:

  • র্ (r) + গ (ga) gives the ligature rga, with the repha prefix:

  • র্ (r) + গ্ (g) + য (ya) gives the ligature rgya, with repha and ya phala affixes:

Gurmukhi script

Gagaa [gəgːɑ] (ਗ) is the eighth letter of the Gurmukhi alphabet. Its name is [gəgːɑ] and is pronounced as /g/ when used in words. It is derived from the Laṇḍā letter ga, and ultimately from Brahmi ga. Gurmukhi gagaa does not have a special pairin or addha (reduced) form for making conjuncts, and in modern Punjabi texts do not take a half form or halant to indicate the bare consonant /g/, although Gurmukhi Sanskrit texts may use an explicit halant.

Gujarati Ga

Gujarati Ga.

Ga (ગ) is the third consonant of the Gujarati abugida. It is derived from Devanagari Ga Ga, and ultimately the Brahmi letter Ga.

Gujarati-using Languages

The Gujarati script is used to write the Gujarati and Kutchi languages. In both languages, ગ is pronounced as [gə] or [g] when appropriate. Like all Indic scripts, Gujarati uses vowel marks attached to the base consonant to override the inherent /ə/ vowel:

GaGāGiGīGuGūGrGlGr̄Gl̄GĕGeGaiGŏGoGauG
Gujarati Ga syllables, with vowel marks in red.

Conjuncts with ગ

Half form of Ga.

Gujarati ગ exhibits conjunct ligatures, much like its parent Devanagari Script. Most Gujarati conjuncts can only be formed by reducing the letter shape to fit tightly to the following letter, usually by dropping a character's vertical stem, sometimes referred to as a "half form". A few conjunct clusters can be represented by a true ligature, instead of a shape that can be broken into constituent independent letters, and vertically stacked conjuncts can also be found in Gujarati, although much less commonly than in Devanagari. True ligatures are quite rare in Indic scripts. The most common ligated conjuncts in Gujarati are in the form of a slight mutation to fit in context or as a consistent variant form appended to the adjacent characters. Those variants include Na and the Repha and Rakar forms of Ra.

  • ર્ (r) + ગ (ga) gives the ligature RGa:

  • ગ્ (g) + ર (ra) gives the ligature GRa:

  • ગ્ (g) + ન (na) gives the ligature GNa:

  • દ્ (d) + ગ (ga) gives the ligature DGa:

Telugu Ga

Telugu Ga
Telugu subjoined Ga
Telugu independent and subjoined Ga.

Ga (గ) is a consonant of the Telugu abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter G. It is closely related to the Kannada letter ಗ. Most Telugu consonants contain a v-shaped headstroke that is related to the horizontal headline found in other Indic scripts, although headstrokes do not connect adjacent letters in Telugu. The headstroke is normally lost when adding vowel matras. Telugu conjuncts are created by reducing trailing letters to a subjoined form that appears below the initial consonant of the conjunct. Many subjoined forms are created by dropping their headline, with many extending the end of the stroke of the main letter body to form an extended tail reaching up to the right of the preceding consonant. This subjoining of trailing letters to create conjuncts is in contrast to the leading half forms of Devanagari and Bengali letters. Ligature conjuncts are not a feature in Telugu, with the only non-standard construction being an alternate subjoined form of Ṣa (borrowed from Kannada) in the KṢa conjunct.

Malayalam Ga

Malayalam letter Ga

Ga (ഗ) is a consonant of the Malayalam abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter G, via the Grantha letter Ga Ga. Like in other Indic scripts, Malayalam consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Malayalam Ga matras: Ga, Gā, Gi, Gī, Gu, Gū, Gr̥, Gr̥̄, Gl̥, Gl̥̄, Ge, Gē, Gai, Go, Gō, Gau, and G.

Conjuncts of ഗ

As is common in Indic scripts, Malayalam joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. There are several ways in which conjuncts are formed in Malayalam texts: using a post-base form of a trailing consonant placed under the initial consonant of a conjunct, a combined ligature of two or more consonants joined together, a conjoining form that appears as a combining mark on the rest of the conjunct, the use of an explicit candrakkala mark to suppress the inherent "a" vowel, or a special consonant form called a "chillu" letter, representing a bare consonant without the inherent "a" vowel. Texts written with the modern reformed Malayalam orthography, put̪iya lipi, may favor more regular conjunct forms than older texts in paḻaya lipi, due to changes undertaken in the 1970s by the Government of Kerala.

  • ഗ് (g) + ഗ (ga) gives the ligature gga:

  • ഗ് (g) + ഘ (ɡʱa) gives the ligature gɡʱa:

  • ഗ് (g) + ദ (da) gives the ligature gda:

  • ഗ് (g) + ന (na) gives the ligature gna:

  • ഗ് (g) + മ (ma) gives the ligature gma:

  • ഗ് (g) + ര (ra) gives the ligature gra:

Thai script

Kho khwai (ค) and kho khon (ฅ) are the fourth and fifth letters of the Thai script. They fall under the low class of Thai consonants. In IPA, kho khwai and kho khon are pronounced as [kʰ] at the beginning of a syllable and are pronounced as [k̚] at the end of a syllable. The previous two letters of the alphabet, kho khai (ข) and kho khuat (ฃ), are also named kho, however, they all fall under the high class of Thai consonants. The next letter of the alphabet, kho ra-khang (ฆ), correspond to the Sanskrit letter ‘घ’. Unlike many Indic scripts, Thai consonants do not form conjunct ligatures, and use the pinthu—an explicit virama with a dot shape—to indicate bare consonants.

Kho Khwai

In the acrophony of the Thai script, khwai (ควาย) means ‘water buffalo’. Kho khwai corresponds to the Sanskrit character ‘ग’.

Kho Khon

In the acrophony of the Thai script, khon (คน) means ‘person’. Kho khon (ฅ) represents the voiced velar fricative sound /ɣ/ that existed in Old Thai at the time the alphabet was created but no longer exists in Modern Thai. When the Thai script was developed, the voiceless velar fricative sound did not have a Sanskrit or Pali counterpart so the character kho khwai was slightly modified to create kho khon. During the Old Thai period, this sounds merged into the stop /ɡ/, and as a result the use of this letters became unstable. Although kho khon is now obsolete, it remains in dictionaries, preserving the traditional count of 44 letters in the Thai alphabet. When the first Thai typewriter was developed by Edwin Hunter McFarland in 1892, there was simply no space for all characters, thus kho khon was one of the two letters left out along with kho khuat.[9] Although kho khon does not appear in modern Thai orthography, some writers and publishers are trying to reintroduce its usage.

Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Ke

ᑫ, ᑭ, ᑯ and ᑲ are the base characters "Ke", "Ki", "Ko" and "Ka" in the Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. The bare consonant ᒃ (K) is a small version of the A-series letter ᑲ, although the Western Cree letter ᐠ, derived from Pitman shorthand was the original bare consonant symbol for K. The character ᑫ is derived from a handwritten form of the Devanagari letter ग, without the headline or vertical stem, and the forms for different vowels are derived by mirroring.[10][11] Unlike most writing systems without legacy computer encodings, complex Canadian syllabic letters are represented in Unicode with pre-composed characters, rather than with base characters and diacritical marks.

Variant E-series I-series O-series A-series Other
K + vowel ᑫᑭᑯᑲᢸ
KeKiKoKaKay
Small -ᣖᒄᒃᐠ
-Ojibway KKwKCree K
K with long vowels -ᑮᑰᑱᑳᑬ
-KīKōCree KōKāKāi
K+ W- vowels ᑴᑵᑶᑷᑺᑻᑾᑿᢹ
KweCree KweKwiCree KwiKwoCree KwoKwaCree KwaKway
K+ W- long vowels -ᑸᑹᑼᑽᒀᒂᒁ-
-KwīCree KwīKwōCree KwōKwāNaskapi KwāCree Kwā-
Q -ᕿᖁᖃᖅ
-QiQoQaQ
Q with long vowels -ᖀᖂᖄᕾ
-QīQōQāQāi
Slavey K forms ᒅᒆᒇᒈ-
KeKiKoKa

Odia Ga

Odia independent letter Ga
Odia subjoined letter Ga
Odia independent and subjoined letter Ga.

Ga (ଗ) is a consonant of the Odia abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter G, via the Siddhaṃ letter Ga Ga. Like in other Indic scripts, Odia consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Odia Ga with vowel matras
GaGāGiGīGuGūGr̥Gr̥̄Gl̥Gl̥̄GeGaiGoGauG
ଗଗାଗିଗୀଗୁଗୂଗୃଗୄଗୢଗୣଗେଗୈଗୋଗୌଗ୍

Conjuncts of ଗ

As is common in Indic scripts, Odia joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a small subjoined form of trailing consonants. Most consonants' subjoined forms are identical to the full form, just reduced in size, although a few drop the curved headline or have a subjoined form not directly related to the full form of the consonant. The second type of conjunct formation is through pure ligatures, where the constituent consonants are written together in a single graphic form. This ligature may be recognizable as being a combination of two characters or it can have a conjunct ligature unrelated to its constituent characters.

  • ଙ୍ (ŋ) + ଗ (ga) gives the ligature ŋga:

  • ର୍ (r) + ଗ (ga) gives the ligature rga:

  • ଗ୍ (g) + ର (ra) gives the ligature gra:

Kaithi Ga

Kaithi consonant Ga
Kaithi half-form letter Ga
Kaithi consonant and half-form Ga.

Ga (𑂏) is a consonant of the Kaithi abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter G, via the Siddhaṃ letter Ga Ga. Like in other Indic scripts, Kaithi consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel or no vowel at all.

Kaithi Ga with vowel matras
GaGāGiGīGuGūGeGaiGoGauG
𑂏𑂏𑂰𑂏𑂱𑂏𑂲𑂏𑂳𑂏𑂴𑂏𑂵𑂏𑂶𑂏𑂷𑂏𑂸𑂏𑂹

Conjuncts of 𑂏

As is common in Indic scripts, Kaithi joins letters together to form conjunct consonant clusters. The most common conjunct formation is achieved by using a half form of preceding consonants, although several consonants use an explicit virama. Most half forms are derived from the full form by removing the vertical stem. As is common in most Indic scripts, conjucts of ra are indicated with a repha or rakar mark attached to the rest of the consonant cluster. In addition, there are a few vertical conjuncts that can be found in Kaithi writing, but true ligatures are not used in the modern Kaithi script.

  • 𑂏୍ (g) + 𑂩 (ra) gives the ligature gra:

  • 𑂩୍ (r) + 𑂏 (ga) gives the ligature rga:

Khmer Ko

គ ្គ
IndependentSubscript
Khmer independent and subjoined letter Ko.

Ko (គ) is a consonant of the Khmer abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Pallava letter Ga Ga. Like in other Indic scripts, Khmer consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel. Actually, the sounds of the vowels are modified by the consonant; see the article on the Khmer writing system for details.

Khmer Ko with vowel matras
GaGāGiGī GuGūGr̥Gr̥̄ Gl̥Gl̥̄GeGai GoGau GẏGȳGuaGoe GẏaGiaGae GàG
គគា គិគី គុគូ គ្ឫគ្ឬ គ្ឭគ្ឮ គេគៃ គោគៅ គឹគឺ គួគើ គឿគៀ គែគៈគ៑

Note: The vowels (other than vocalic liquids) are shown using the ALA-LC scheme.[12]

Pali and Sanskrit are written as abugidas with the lack of a vowel between consonants notated as consonants indicated by vertically stacking the consonants without their touching. For phonetically final consonants, the lack of a vowel is marked by virama.

The Khmer language works the same, except that a different method is used for the last consonant of a word. The final consonant in a consonant stack is indicated as having no implicit vowel by applying tôndôkhéad to it. By default, a consonant surmounted by robat is silent and lacks an inherent vowel. The yŭkôlpĭntŭ positively indicates the presence of a final implicit vowel, plus its automatic glottal stop. Otherwise, there is no final vowel, unless the word is of Pali or Sanskrit origin, in which case the spelling is ambiguous. Up until the start of the 20th century, the lack of a final vowel could be indicating by subscripting the consonant, as then done in Lao and in other non-Indic languages using the Tai Tham script.


Tai Tham Script

Tai Tham independent letter Low Ka
Tai Tham subscript letter Low ka
Tai Tham independent letter Low Khha
Tai Tham independent (ᨣ), subjoined (◌᩠ᨣ) and modified letter Low Ka (ᨤ).

Low Ka (ᨣ) is a consonant of the Tai Tham abugida. It ultimately arose from the Brahmi letter , via the Pallava letter Ga Ga. The Tai Tham script was originally used to write Pali (the name 'Tham' is a local form of dharma), and faced the same limitations in writing Tai languages as Khmer had. The Thai solutions were adopted, with consonants being systematically modified by the addition of a tail to supply new consonants, mostly for fricatives. Low Ka was modified, yielding what for convenience we call Low Khha here. Both consonants are low consonants in the Tai alphabets. The two sounds, /ɡ/ and /ɣ/, subsequently merɡed in Lao as /kʰ/, and Low Khha is absent from the Lao variant of Tai Tham. The other Tai languages keep them separate, as /k/ and /x/.

Low Ka

Like in other Indic scripts, Tai Tham consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel.

Tai Tham Low Ka with vowel matras
Syllable typegagāgigīgưgư̄gugūgēgǣgō
Closed or open ᨣᨣᩤ ᨣᩥᨣᩦ ᨣᩧᨣᩨ ᨣᩩᨣᩪ ᨣᩮᨣᩯ ᨣᩮᩤ
gaigaưgaugō̹i
Open ᨣᩱᨣᩲ ᨣᩮᩢᩤᨣᩮᩫᩢᩤ ᨣᩮᩫᩤᨣᩳ ᨣᩭ
gogagōgœ̄gō̹go̹
Open ᨣᩰᩡᨣᩡ ᨣᩰ ᨣᩮᩬᩥᨣᩮᩦ ᨣᩬᩴᨣᩴ ᨣᩬᩳᨣᩳ ᨣᩰᩬᩡᨣᩰᩬ
Closed ᨣᩫᨣᩢ ᨣᩰᩫ ᨣᩮᩥᨣᩮᩦ ᨣᩬ ᨣᩬᩢ
gūagīagư̄a
Open ᨣ᩠ᩅᩫ ᨣ᩠ᨿᩮᨣᩮᩢ᩠ᨿ ᨣᩮᩬᩥᩋ ᨣᩮᩬᩨᩋᨣᩮᩬᩨ
Closed ᨣ᩠ᩅ ᨣ᩠ᨿ ᨣᩮᩬᩥᨣᩮᩬᩨ

Notes:

  1. The transliteration scheme is an amalgamation of the ALA-LC schemes of Khmer[12], Pali[13] and Lao[14].
  2. Many of the matras include subscript wa (), subscript ya (), subscript a () or even the letter a () itself. Anusvara () and visarga () are also used.
  3. In the relevant Tai languages, a short vowel in an open syllable includes an underlyinɡ ɡlottal stop.

Additional short vowels not shown above may be synthesised from the corresponding long vowel by appending visarga for open syllables (as shown for go) or applying mai sat () for closed syllables (as shown for go̹). Unlike the other languages, Lao instead replaces an ī or ư̄ glyph by the corresponding short vowel.

The lack of a vowel between consonants notated as consonants is indicated by vertically stacking the consonants, generally without their touching. The Brahmi style of writing final consonants small and low developed, as vestigially seen in Khmer and Lao, into using subscripting to indicate that a consonant had no vowel of its own. In theory this leaves it ambiguous as to whether a consonant precedes or follows the vowel, but ambiguous cases are rare. Finally, if there is no room for the consonant below, it may be left as an 'independent' consonant or. in some cases, written superscript. Occasionally the visible virama (ra haam) is used, but this may signify that the consonant so marked is silent. The vowel /a/ will be made explicit if the final consonant is notated by a letter and is included in the same stack as the initial consonant or is written in a stack just consisting of that consonant.

Low Ka can serve as the initial consonant of a stack, and several examples can be seen above. It can also occur as the final element of a consonant stack in words of Indic origin, both in the cluster gg of a Pali word ᨾᨣ᩠ᨣ magga 'road' and as the final consonant after apocation of the final vowel, e.g. ᨶᩣ᩠ᨣ nāg 'nāga'.

In writing systems that make use of tall aa, as the initial letter of an akshara the letter is followed by tall aa. as shown in the table of matras above. This is because the sequence of letter and round aa ᨣᩣ could formerly be very similar to the independent letter high ka (Ka). This rule is frequently neglected when a mark above would clearly disambiguate the two.

Low Khha

Like in other Indic scripts, Tai Tham consonants have the inherent vowel "a", and take one of several modifying vowel signs to represent syllables with another vowel.

Tai Tham Low Khha with vowel matras
Syllable typeG̣aG̣āG̣iG̣īG̣ưG̣ư̄G̣uG̣ūG̣ēG̣ǣG̣ō
Closed or open ᨤᨤᩣ ᨤᩥᨤᩦ ᨤᩧᨤᩨ ᨤᩩᨤᩪ ᨤᩮᨤᩯ ᨤᩮᩣ
G̣aiG̣aưG̣auG̣ō̹i
Open ᨤᩱᨤᩲ ᨤᩮᩢᩣ ᨤᩮᩫᩣᨤᩳ ᨤᩭ
G̣oG̣aG̣ōG̣œ̄G̣ō̹G̣o̹
Open ᨤᩰᩡᨤᩡ ᨤᩰ ᨤᩮᩬᩥ ᨤᩬᩴᨤᩴ ᨤᩬᩳᨤᩳ ᨤᩰᩬᩡᨤᩰᩬ
Closed ᨤᩫᨤᩢ ᨤᩰᩫ ᨤᩮᩥ ᨤᩬ ᨤᩬᩢ
G̣ūaG̣īaG̣ư̄a
Open ᨤ᩠ᩅᩫ ᨤ᩠ᨿᩮ ᨤᩮᩬᩥᩋ ᨤᩮᩬᩨᩋᨤᩮᩬᩨ
Closed ᨤ᩠ᩅ ᨤ᩠ᨿ ᨤᩮᩬᩥᨤᩮᩬᩨ

Notes:

  1. The transliteration scheme is an amalgamation of the ALA-LC schemes of Khmer[12], Pali[15] and Lao[16].
  2. Many of the matras include subscript wa (), subscript ya (), subscript a () or even the letter a () itself. Anusvara () and visarga () are also used.
  3. In the relevant Tai languages, a short vowel in an open syllable includes an underlyinɡ ɡlottal stop.

This form occurs only as the initial consonant of a syllable. This letter combined in aksharas with the dependent vowel Ā uses round aa, as shown in the table of matras above, rather than tall aa.

Comparison of Ga

The various Indic scripts are generally related to each other through adaptation and borrowing, and as such the glyphs for cognate letters, including Ga, are related as well.

Comparison of Ga in different scripts
Aramaic
Ga
Kharoṣṭhī
𐨒		Ashoka Brahmi
Ga		Kushana Brahmi[lower-alpha 1]
Ga		Tocharian[lower-alpha 2]
Ga
Gupta Brahmi
Ga		Pallava
Ga
Kadamba
-
Bhaiksuki
𑰐		Siddhaṃ
Ga		Grantha
𑌗		Cham
ꨈ
Sinhala
ග		Pyu /
Old Mon[lower-alpha 3]
-
Tibetan
Ga		Newa
𑐐		Ahom
𑜕		Malayalam
ഗ
Telugu
గ		Burmese
ဂ
Lepcha
ᰃ		Ranjana
Ga		Saurashtra
ꢔ		Dives Akuru
𑤎
Kannada
ಗ		Kayah Li
ꤌ
Limbu
ᤃ		Soyombo[lower-alpha 4]
𑩞		Khmer
គ		Tamil
-
Chakma
𑄉		Tai Tham
ᨣ / ᨤ
Meitei Mayek
ꯒ		Gaudi
-		Thai
ค / ฅ		Lao
ຄ
Tai Le
-
Marchen
𑱴		Tirhuta
𑒑		New Tai Lue
ᦅ / ᦆ		Tai Viet
ꪆ / ꪇ		Aksara Kawi
Ga
'Phags-pa
ꡂ		Odia
ଗ		Sharada
𑆓		Rejang
ꤱ		Batak
ᯎ		Buginese
ᨁ
Zanabazar Square
𑨍		Bengali-Assamese
Ga		Takri
𑚌		Javanese
ꦒ		Balinese
ᬕ		Makasar
𑻡
Hangul[lower-alpha 5]
ㄱ		Northern Nagari
-		Dogri
𑠌		Laṇḍā
-		Sundanese
ᮌ		Baybayin
ᜄ
Modi
𑘐		Gujarati
ગ		Khojki
𑈊		Khudabadi
𑊼		Mahajani
𑅗		Tagbanwa
ᝤ
Devanagari
Ga		Nandinagari
𑦰		Kaithi
Ga		Gurmukhi
ਗ		Multani
𑊆		Buhid
ᝄ
Canadian Syllabics[lower-alpha 6]
ᑫ		Soyombo[lower-alpha 7]
𑩞		Sylheti Nagari
ꠉ		Gunjala Gondi
𑵶		Masaram Gondi[lower-alpha 8]
𑴎		Hanuno'o
ᜤ
Notes
  1. ↑ The middle "Kushana" form of Brahmi is a later style that emerged as Brahmi scripts were beginning to proliferate. Gupta Brahmi was definitely a stylistic descendant from Kushana, but other Brahmi-derived scripts may have descended from earlier forms.
  2. ↑ Tocharian is probably derived from the middle period "Kushana" form of Brahmi, although artifacts from that time are not plentiful enough to establish a definite succession.
  3. ↑ Pyu and Old Mon are probably the precursors of the Burmese script, and may be derived from either the Pallava or Kadamba script
  4. ↑ May also be derived from Devangari (see bottom left of table)
  5. ↑ The Origin of Hangul from 'Phags-pa is one of limited influence, inspiring at most a few basic letter shapes. Hangul does not function as an Indic abugida.
  6. ↑ Although the basic letter forms of the Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics were derived from handwritten Devanagari letters, this abugida indicates vowel sounds by rotations of the letter form, rather than the use of vowel diacritics as is standard in Indic abugidas.
  7. ↑ May also be derived from Ranjana (see above)
  8. ↑ Masaram Gondi acts as an Indic abugida, but its letterforms were not derived from any single precursor script.

Character encodings of Ga

Most Indic scripts are encoded in the Unicode Standard, and as such the letter Ga in those scripts can be represented in plain text with unique codepoint. Ga from several modern-use scripts can also be found in legacy encodings, such as ISCII.

Character information
Previewగଗಗഗગਗ
Unicode name DEVANAGARI LETTER GA BENGALI LETTER GA TELUGU LETTER GA ORIYA LETTER GA KANNADA LETTER GA MALAYALAM LETTER GA GUJARATI LETTER GA GURMUKHI LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode2327U+09172455U+09973095U+0C172839U+0B173223U+0C973351U+0D172711U+0A972583U+0A17
UTF-8224 164 151E0 A4 97224 166 151E0 A6 97224 176 151E0 B0 97224 172 151E0 AC 97224 178 151E0 B2 97224 180 151E0 B4 97224 170 151E0 AA 97224 168 151E0 A8 97
Numeric character referenceगगগগగగଗଗಗಗഗഗગગਗਗ
ISCII181B5181B5181B5181B5181B5181B5181B5181B5


Character information
Preview
Ashoka
Kushana
Gupta
𐨒𑌗
Unicode name BRAHMI LETTER GA KHAROSHTHI LETTER GA SIDDHAM LETTER GA GRANTHA LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode69653U+1101568114U+10A1271056U+1159070423U+11317
UTF-8240 145 128 149F0 91 80 95240 144 168 146F0 90 A8 92240 145 150 144F0 91 96 90240 145 140 151F0 91 8C 97
UTF-1655300 56341D804 DC1555298 56850D802 DE1255301 56720D805 DD9055300 57111D804 DF17
Numeric character reference𑀕𑀕𐨒𐨒𑖐𑖐𑌗𑌗


Character information
Previewྒꡂ𑨍𑐐𑰐𑆓
Unicode name TIBETAN LETTER GA TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER GA PHAGS-PA LETTER GA ZANABAZAR SQUARE LETTER GA NEWA LETTER GA BHAIKSUKI LETTER GA SHARADA LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode3906U+0F423986U+0F9243074U+A84272205U+11A0D70672U+1141072720U+11C1070035U+11193
UTF-8224 189 130E0 BD 82224 190 146E0 BE 92234 161 130EA A1 82240 145 168 141F0 91 A8 8D240 145 144 144F0 91 90 90240 145 176 144F0 91 B0 90240 145 134 147F0 91 86 93
UTF-1639060F4239860F9243074A84255302 56845D806 DE0D55301 56336D805 DC1055303 56336D807 DC1055300 56723D804 DD93
Numeric character referenceགགྒྒꡂꡂ𑨍𑨍𑐐𑐐𑰐𑰐𑆓𑆓


Character information
Previewဂᨣᨤᦅᦆ
Unicode name MYANMAR LETTER GA TAI THAM LETTER LOW KA TAI THAM LETTER LOW KXA NEW TAI LUE LETTER LOW KA NEW TAI LUE LETTER LOW XA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode4098U+10026691U+1A236692U+1A246533U+19856534U+1986
UTF-8225 128 130E1 80 82225 168 163E1 A8 A3225 168 164E1 A8 A4225 166 133E1 A6 85225 166 134E1 A6 86
Numeric character referenceဂဂᨣᨣᨤᨤᦅᦅᦆᦆ


Character information
Previewគຄคฅꪆꪇ
Unicode name KHMER LETTER KO LAO LETTER KHO TAM THAI CHARACTER KHO KHWAI THAI CHARACTER KHO KHON TAI VIET LETTER LOW GO TAI VIET LETTER HIGH GO
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode6018U+17823716U+0E843588U+0E043589U+0E0543654U+AA8643655U+AA87
UTF-8225 158 130E1 9E 82224 186 132E0 BA 84224 184 132E0 B8 84224 184 133E0 B8 85234 170 134EA AA 86234 170 135EA AA 87
Numeric character referenceគគຄຄคคฅฅꪆꪆꪇꪇ


Character information
Previewගꤌ𑄉𑜕𑤎ꢔꨈ
Unicode name SINHALA LETTER ALPAPRAANA GAYANNA KAYAH LI LETTER GA CHAKMA LETTER GAA AHOM LETTER GA DIVES AKURU LETTER GA SAURASHTRA LETTER GA CHAM LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode3484U+0D9C43276U+A90C69897U+1110971445U+1171571950U+1190E43156U+A89443528U+AA08
UTF-8224 182 156E0 B6 9C234 164 140EA A4 8C240 145 132 137F0 91 84 89240 145 156 149F0 91 9C 95240 145 164 142F0 91 A4 8E234 162 148EA A2 94234 168 136EA A8 88
UTF-1634840D9C43276A90C55300 56585D804 DD0955301 57109D805 DF1555302 56590D806 DD0E43156A89443528AA08
Numeric character referenceගගꤌꤌ𑄉𑄉𑜕𑜕𑤎𑤎ꢔꢔꨈꨈ


Character information
Preview𑘐𑦰𑩞ꠉ𑵶
Unicode name MODI LETTER GA NANDINAGARI LETTER GA SOYOMBO LETTER GA SYLOTI NAGRI LETTER GO GUNJALA GONDI LETTER GA KAITHI LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode71184U+1161072112U+119B072286U+11A5E43017U+A80973078U+11D7669775U+1108F
UTF-8240 145 152 144F0 91 98 90240 145 166 176F0 91 A6 B0240 145 169 158F0 91 A9 9E234 160 137EA A0 89240 145 181 182F0 91 B5 B6240 145 130 143F0 91 82 8F
UTF-1655301 56848D805 DE1055302 56752D806 DDB055302 56926D806 DE5E43017A80955303 56694D807 DD7655300 56463D804 DC8F
Numeric character reference𑘐𑘐𑦰𑦰𑩞𑩞ꠉꠉ𑵶𑵶𑂏𑂏


Character information
Preview𑒑ᰃᤃꯒ𑱴
Unicode name TIRHUTA LETTER GA LEPCHA LETTER GA LIMBU LETTER GA MEETEI MAYEK LETTER GOK MARCHEN LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode70801U+114917171U+1C036403U+190343986U+ABD272820U+11C74
UTF-8240 145 146 145F0 91 92 91225 176 131E1 B0 83225 164 131E1 A4 83234 175 146EA AF 92240 145 177 180F0 91 B1 B4
UTF-1655301 56465D805 DC9171711C036403190343986ABD255303 56436D807 DC74
Numeric character reference𑒑𑒑ᰃᰃᤃᤃꯒꯒ𑱴𑱴


Character information
Preview𑚌𑠌𑈊𑊼𑅗𑊆
Unicode name TAKRI LETTER GA DOGRA LETTER GA KHOJKI LETTER GA KHUDAWADI LETTER GA MAHAJANI LETTER GA MULTANI LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode71308U+1168C71692U+1180C70154U+1120A70332U+112BC69975U+1115770278U+11286
UTF-8240 145 154 140F0 91 9A 8C240 145 160 140F0 91 A0 8C240 145 136 138F0 91 88 8A240 145 138 188F0 91 8A BC240 145 133 151F0 91 85 97240 145 138 134F0 91 8A 86
UTF-1655301 56972D805 DE8C55302 56332D806 DC0C55300 56842D804 DE0A55300 57020D804 DEBC55300 56663D804 DD5755300 56966D804 DE86
Numeric character reference𑚌𑚌𑠌𑠌𑈊𑈊𑊼𑊼𑅗𑅗𑊆𑊆


Character information
Previewᬕᯎᨁꦒ𑻡ꤱᮌ
Unicode name BALINESE LETTER GA BATAK LETTER GA BUGINESE LETTER GA JAVANESE LETTER GA MAKASAR LETTER GA REJANG LETTER GA SUNDANESE LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode6933U+1B157118U+1BCE6657U+1A0143410U+A99273441U+11EE143313U+A9317052U+1B8C
UTF-8225 172 149E1 AC 95225 175 142E1 AF 8E225 168 129E1 A8 81234 166 146EA A6 92240 145 187 161F0 91 BB A1234 164 177EA A4 B1225 174 140E1 AE 8C
UTF-1669331B1571181BCE66571A0143410A99255303 57057D807 DEE143313A93170521B8C
Numeric character referenceᬕᬕᯎᯎᨁᨁꦒꦒ𑻡𑻡ꤱꤱᮌᮌ


Character information
Previewᜄᝤᝄᜤ𑴎
Unicode name TAGALOG LETTER GA TAGBANWA LETTER GA BUHID LETTER GA HANUNOO LETTER GA MASARAM GONDI LETTER GA
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode5892U+17045988U+17645956U+17445924U+172472974U+11D0E
UTF-8225 156 132E1 9C 84225 157 164E1 9D A4225 157 132E1 9D 84225 156 164E1 9C A4240 145 180 142F0 91 B4 8E
UTF-165892170459881764595617445924172455303 56590D807 DD0E
Numeric character referenceᜄᜄᝤᝤᝄᝄᜤᜤ𑴎𑴎
Character information
Previewᑫᑭᑯᑲᒃ
Unicode name CANADIAN SYLLABICS KE CANADIAN SYLLABICS KI CANADIAN SYLLABICS KO CANADIAN SYLLABICS KA CANADIAN SYLLABICS K
Encodingsdecimalhexdechexdechexdechexdechex
Unicode5227U+146B5229U+146D5231U+146F5234U+14725251U+1483
UTF-8225 145 171E1 91 AB225 145 173E1 91 AD225 145 175E1 91 AF225 145 178E1 91 B2225 146 131E1 92 83
Numeric character referenceᑫᑫᑭᑭᑯᑯᑲᑲᒃᒃ
  • The full range of KE Canadian syllabic characters can be found at the codepoint ranges 146B-1488, 166F, 18B8-18B9, & 18D6.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 447–450. ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
  2. ↑ Evolutionary chart, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol 7, 1838
  3. ↑ Everson, Michael (30 March 2005). "Proposal to add four characters for Sindhi to the BMP of the UCS" (PDF). Unicode.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
  4. ↑ Lekhwani, Kanhaiyalal. 1987 (1909). An intensive course in Sindhi. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages; [New York]: Hippocrene Books. OCLC 18986594
  5. ↑ Shapiro, Michael C. (1989). A Primer of Modern Standard Hindi. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-208-0508-8. In addition to the basic consonantal sounds discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2, many speakers use any or all five additional consonants (क़ ḳ, ख़ ḳh,ग़ ġ, ज़ z, फ़ f) in words of foreign origin (primarily from Persian, Arabic, English, and Portuguese). The last two of these, ज़ z and फ़ f, are the initial sounds in English zig and fig respectively. The consonant क़ ḳ is a voiceless uvular stop, somewhat like k, but pronounced further back in the mouth. ख़ ḳh is a voiceless fricative similar in pronunciation to the final sound of the German ach. ग़ ġ is generally pronounced as a voiceless uvular fricative, although it is occasionally heard as a stop rather than a fricative. In devanāgari each of these five sounds is represented by the use of a subscript dot under one of the basic consonant signs.
  6. ↑ Morelli, Sarah (20 December 2019). A Guru’s Journey: Pandit Chitresh Das and Indian Classical Dance in Diaspora. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-05172-2. Hindi has a nasal sound roughly equivalent to the n in the English sang, transliterated here as ṅ or ṁ, and has two slightly differing sh sounds, transliterated as ś and ṣ. ... A few words contain consonants used in Urdu or in loanwords from Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, and English: क़ (ق) is transliterated as q, ख़ (خ) as kh, ग़ (غ) as g, ज़ (ظ ,ز, or ض) as z, झ़ (ژ) as zh, and फ़ (ف) as f.
  7. ↑ Pall, Peeter. "Microsoft Word - kblhi2" (PDF). Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Eesti Keele Instituudi kohanimeandmed. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
  8. ↑ "The Bengali Alphabet" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-28.
  9. ↑ "The origins of the Thai typewriter". Archived from the original on April 26, 2012. Retrieved December 5, 2011.
  10. ↑ Andrew Dalby (2004:139) Dictionary of Languages
  11. ↑ Some General Aspects of the Syllabics Orthography, Chris Harvey 2003
  12. 1 2 3 ALA-LC Romanization Tables, Khmer, rev. 2012.
  13. ↑ Pali (in various scripts) romanization table (ALA-LC)
  14. ↑ [https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/lao.pdf Lao romanization table (ALA-LC)
  15. ↑ Pali (in various scripts) romanization table (ALA-LC)
  16. ↑ [https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/lao.pdf Lao romanization table (ALA-LC)
  • Kurt Elfering: Die Mathematik des Aryabhata I. Text, Übersetzung aus dem Sanskrit und Kommentar. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, München, 1975, ISBN 3-7705-1326-6
  • Georges Ifrah: The Universal History of Numbers. From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2000, ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
  • B. L. van der Waerden: Erwachende Wissenschaft. Ägyptische, babylonische und griechische Mathematik. Birkhäuser-Verlag, Basel Stuttgart, 1966, ISBN 3-7643-0399-9
  • Fleet, J. F. (January 1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25189823.
  • Fleet, J. F. (1911). "Aryabhata's System of Expressing Numbers". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 43: 109–126. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00040995. JSTOR 25189823.
^note Conjuncts are identified by IAST transliteration, except aspirated consonants are indicated with a superscript "h" to distinguish from an unaspirated cononant + Ha, and the use of the IPA "ŋ" and "ʃ" instead of the less dinstinctive "ṅ" and "ś".
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